Campbell Chapter 9

No One Ever Told Me About That

You have three choices for notifying users about a policy or procedure.

1. Announce in person
2. Communicate it in writing
3. Send it be e-mail

Which one you choose will be based on part preference and part circumstance.

Factors that determine how you notify your users depend on:

• Amount of material
• Nature of the material
• Complexity of the subject
• Organization's standards
• Communication method
• Size of user group
• Urgency
• Location of users

Notifying in writing

Pros to notifying in writing are that it communicates the policy or procedure in a uniform way to all users. It can be distributed in mass and reaches users at all locations, on all shifts. It serves as legal documentation. And it formalizes and reinforces the message.

Cons to notifying in writing are that remote locations and later shifts may get their copies late and feel slighted. It may sound rigid or bureaucratic. It eliminates personal contact and the ability to ask questions directly of the issuer.

Tips for notifying in writing:

• You're writing for an external audience such as an accrediting agency or customer
• The audience is large or widely dispersed
• The material is complex or lengthy
• The subject is noncontroversial
• Personal contact is unnecessary

Notifying in person

Doing this can take many forms: group meetings, individual meetings, phone conferences, or videoconferences.
The main advantage of notifying in person is that is gives direct contact with the issuer, which tends in increase cooperation and reduce resistance.
The main disadvantage of notifying in person is that meetings can be both hard to coordinate and unpleasant to conduct.

Tips for notifying in person:

• The subject is simple or the user group small
• You need to convey a sense of urgency or importance
• The policy is ambiguous and needs explanation
• Unofficial expectations differ from official policies
• The subject is controversial or sensitive

Notifying by e-mail

E-mail is a hybrid approach to notifying allowing the user to ask questions to a written announcement. E-mail is best used when you have on-line policies and procedures or most of the organization's communication flows through an e-mail system and users are comfortable with it.

What to put in your notices

Written notices

Identify the policy and procedure
Give a summary of it
Include logistical information (title, number, effective date, implementation time frame, who's covered, whom to contact with questions or problems)
Include a brief summary of the substance (reasons for it, basic provisions, user responsibilities, and the impact it will have on users)

Verbal notices

Will the information session be introductory (brief and very general), informational (lengthier, containing more substantial information), or a training session (lasting as long as necessary covering all operational details)

Notify managers first before issuing a general notice to the company. Getting managers on board will keep their staff in line behind them.

Campbell Chapter 8 - Did I Forget Anything?

I want to apologize for not posting this earlier. I guess I wasn’t paying attention yesterday, and I clicked ‘Save’ instead of ‘Publish.’ I think it’s quite fitting for the Did I Forget Anything? chapter. Oops.

Campbell begins this discussion by stating that the writer of a document is ultimately responsible for mistakes and errors. Therefore, a writer’s goal is to make both content and form as nearly perfect as possible.

To create a perfect document, it must go through a review process, which fine-tunes the document and double-checks for accuracy and spelling. Since this can’t be done at once, there are five different types of review, each dealing with a different aspect. These reviews include: verification, validation, editing, proofreading and approval. Campbell notes that these reviews can be combined, but it’s a much more demanding task and requires greater skill on the reviewer’s part. She suggests using multiple reviewers to speed the process, but the real key is to build adequate review time into the schedule up front.

Campbell then goes on to discuss verification. She notes that verification and validation are often skipped, but they shouldn’t be because they provide the foundation of the finished product and are the main concerns of both the reader and the organization. When you verify, you’re checking for accuracy. There are a number of different verification methods, which include: comparing the final draft to the original, checking it against source documents, confirming numerical and statistical data or assigning a content expert to do the review. Campbell writes that verification is especially important in procedures, where near perfection may note be good enough.

Next, Campbell discusses validation, which is checking for usability. She writes that you should read the policy completely through to see if it makes sense or if anything is missing. The best way to validate a policy is to have several people read through it and watch their reactions. Make notes of their reactions and ask them for honest feedback. Campbell also notes that validating procedures takes longer because you’re actually testing the steps and the sequence. There are numerous techniques for validating procedures, which include: walk-throughs, observation, focus groups, and surveys. Each of these methods require you to go through the basic steps of preparation, testing, debriefing, and documentation.

The next review process Campbell discusses is editing. She writes that it presents the unique challenge of improving the policy or procedure without changing the meaning. The main purpose of the review is to check for items such as format, wording, consistency, flow, cohesion, layout, and visual appeal. The number of edits you to through depends largely on the document and the project. Campbell notes that you should be careful not to confuse the function of editing with the functions of validation and verification. To edit, you must know what you want from your document. In the case of policies and procedures, it’s readability and usability. The mechanics of editing are largely a matter or organization and consistency. Campbell continues by writing that editing should be done with an eye to the important matters of mechanical correctness, because trivial ones will be caught in proofreading. When you edit, you should review the page layout, consider the design elements, and scrutinize everything for consistency and logic.

Campbell continues with the next review, which is proofreading. She writes that it is as important as the other reviews, but for a different reason, which is your audience assumes that if you let little things slip through, you’ve probably let some big things slip through too. She also writes that proofreading has a bad reputation because it is seen as boring, but it is actually a demanding, time-consuming step that requires discipline, concentration, and patience. Campbell notes that the secret to effective proofreading is decontextualizing, which means that you must reverse the learned habit of reading for meaning and concepts. There are a number of ways to proofread, which include reading backwards, reading aloud, reading into a tape recorder, reading to a partner or reading diagonally. When proofreading, you should look for every single imperfection, typographical errors, punctuation, spacing, spelling, agreement, page breaks, titles, misplaced words and phrases, alignment, names, numbers, typestyle, typesize and margins. Campbell also notes that you should be especially careful when proofing graphics, and to be aware of personal blind spots. When proofing your own work, Campbell emphasizes decontextualizing. If you are under time constraints, Campbell suggests having different people proof for different aspects simultaneously or using free-proofing.

The last review process Campbell discusses is approval. You should talk with your approvers throughout the process and not wait until the end. If you consult them periodically throughout the process, your writing won’t come as a shock to them. Your approval process should never be haphazard, casual or done at the last minute. Instead, your procedure should outline the approval cycle and time frames. It should also encourage approvers to solicit input and comments from within their own areas. Often, slow response from approvers causes a time problem. Campbell suggests using a well-designed form that’s fast and easy to fill out to help conquer these delays. According to Campbell, you shouldn’t be disturbed if your approvers don’t agree. This helps you identify differences of opinions before the policies and procedures are in force. Your job with differences of opinions is to coordinate and communicate. Campbell also writes that you should try to include unofficial approvers because they are influential people who give an unofficial thumbs-up or thumbs-down on the final product since they will use the product every day.

Campbell concludes this chapter by discussing who should perform these reviews. She emphasizes the importance of having other reviewers look at your work because they bring a fresh eye and a fresh perspective. They also bring their own marks and styles, so it is important to coordinate and communicate effectively with these reviewers. Campbell notes that at times another reviewer may not be available. In these cases, you’ll have to exercise twice your normal discipline since you’ll be the sole developer, researcher, writer and reviewer all at once.

Barker - Chapter 8 - Conducting Usability Tests

Writing Software Documentation: A Task-Oriented Approach

Thomas T. Barker

Chapter 8 – Conducting Usability Tests

Barker defines the process of testing documents as “procedures for gaining empirical data about [their] usability.” This is accomplished using three basic types of tests: procedure tests for task performance, tutorial tests for skill and understanding, and reference tests for access to information. The chapter presents a 10-step test plan for conducting these tests.

Guidelines

Good testing requires careful planning. Barker suggests the following 10 steps be followed.

Step 1 – Decide When to Test

Testing often occurs after a draft of the documents has been produced, however it can take place at various stages in the project depending on your testing goals. A Predictive Test can be conducted during the design stage, a Remedial Test during writing or development, and an Evaluative Test after the document has been completed and delivered.

You must also determine what parts of your documentation you want to test. Determining this can be assisted by relying on the objectives that you set for your documentation, and the user analysis that you previously performed.

Step 2 – Select the Test Points

Test points are issues or features that can interfere with the efficient and effective application of a program to a user’s work activities. These can include problems with content and problems with document design.

Try to identify points where a mistake on either of these levels could lead to user failure. Any procedure where the cost of user confusion or failure is high in terms of time or money would be a good candidate for testing. In addition to testing these procedures, you should also test the document design strategies employed to ensure that they are effective.

Step 3 – Choose the Type of Test

There are three types of tests. Performance Tests test whether users can successfully complete a given procedure. Understandability Tests test whether users can provide evidence of what they have learned. Read-and-Locate Tests test how effectively users can locate a given topic of information in a documentation set.

Step 4 – Set Performance and Learning Objectives

Performance objectives state how long a procedure should take or the frequency of correctness one can expect from users. They can be time-related, or error-related. The goal here is to collect numbers that can be analyzed and compared.

In order to produce objective test results, it is important to avoid letting the outcome of the test be skewed by bias. Prejudices can creep in as a result of various work pressures, a proforma testing atmosphere, or becoming too enamored with the product of your labors.

Step 5 – Select Testers and Evaluators

The tester is defined as the person who administers the test. The evaluator is the person actually taking the usability test. If you do not have actual users available, you will have to compromise by selecting individuals to stand in for users.

Step 6 – Prepare the Test Materials

The written and other materials provided to testers and evaluators can be very extensive. Barker lists multiple forms of test materials, both written and hardware/software based. He also discusses the importance of pilot testing, which basically amounts to “testing the test”, to ensure that the instructions, terminology, and time expectations are appropriate.

Step 7 – Set Up the Test Environment

The test environment can range from the user’s actual workplace to a controlled laboratory. A field test produces valuable real-world insight, while a testing lab offers greater control over the process. A combination of both environments is often the most effective approach.

Step 8 – Record Information Accurately

It is important to accurately record what you see and hear throughout the test. This can be accomplished using video and audio recording technology, in conjunction with copious note taking. Making use of additional observers can help fill in any details that you miss.

Step 9 – Interpret the Data

There are a number of phenomenon that can cloud the data obtained through testing. Once these variables have been accounted for, you can make changes to your document based on what the numbers reveal. These can inspire all sorts of design decisions that require skill and commonsense decisions on the part of the author.

Step 10 – Incorporate the Feedback

The final step is an obvious one. The information gleaned from the testing process should serve to enhance the document in a positive way.

Discussion

In this section Barker offers a variety of thoughts on the usability testing of technical documentation. These include topics such as:

• The three components of usability testing: tester, evaluator, and subject matter.
  
• The importance of user testing as part of user-driven design
  
• Comparing field tests and laboratory tests
  
• The cost of testing and making it a corporate priority
  
• Various field testing methods
  
• The trade offs between testing earlier and testing later
  
• Distinguishing between problems with the documentation and problems with the product

Barker concludes the chapter with a glossary of terms and a checklist for use when planning and executing usability tests.

Barker Chapter 7

Sorry about being so late folks. That's my (Matt) fault not Valerie's.

Getting Useful Reviews

In this chapter, Barker describes the method of producing and obtaining quality reviews of any document.
Barker describes Guidelines for Managing Documents Reviews

1. Review the document objectives from the documentation plan
2. Determine the type of review needed
3. Establish a review schedule
4. Plan the reviews
5. Write a cover letter with questions for reviewers
6. Prepare feedback material for reviewers

Review the document objectives from the document plan:

Review the document plan to find what aspects of the document you would like reviewed. For instance, the document provides task-oriented examples of processed images, ask the reviewer if the examples reflect real-world tasks.

Determine the type of review needed:

• User reviews: Reviews by the actual intended users of the document.
• Management reviews: Reviews by managers and supervisors associated with your documentation project.
• Technical reviews: Reviews by programmers and developers of the software.
• Client reviews: Reviews by the people or department paying for the software and documentation.
• Subject-matter expert reviews: Reviews by experts in the professional field represented in the software.

Establish a Review Schedule:

Sequential Circulation involves making one copy and passing it from person to person.
Pros:

• Low cost
• Less hassle
• Encourages team spirit
  

Cons:

• Spawns arguments in the margin
• Early reviewers affect later reviewers
• Causes political problems (who gets it first and who gets it last)
  
• Hard to control
• Takes extra time

Simultaneous Circulation involves making a copy for each reviewer.
Pros:

• Fast
• Good for geographically diverse reviewers
• Fosters a one-on-one relationship
• Easy to control
• Easy, when online
  

Cons:

• Expensive
• Takes more of your time
• Fosters redundant comments
• Causes version mix-ups with online

Plan your reviews:

Writing up a strategy and a schedule for the review will help it to go smoothly and be more productive

Write a cover letter with questions for the reviewers:

• Indicate document objectives and benefits to the reviewer
• Ask for specific advice/comments
• Provide the necessary background
• Tell reviewers how to mark or comment
• Give dates and places for return
• Thank your reviewers

Prepare feedback materials for reviewers:

People like to know what they do matters, write a note telling them that you read and paid attention to the comments they made.

Campbell - Chapter 7 - What’s the Secret to Creating Good Manuals and Handbooks?

Writing Effective Policies and Procedures: A Step-By-Step Resource for Clear Communication

Nancy J. Campbell

Chapter 7 – What’s the Secret to Creating Good Manuals and Handbooks?

Campbell begins by suggesting that the key to creating a good manual or handbook lies in successfully answering two questions: Can readers find what they are looking for in a fast, logical way; and will the book physically be easy to handle and hold up to daily use?

What to Put in a Manual or Handbook

Determining what to include in these documents can be difficult. There are no formulas for determining content. The type of policy or procedure being documented and the level of detail required depend on the purpose of the document and its audience. Documents fulfilling legal or regulatory requirements, documents outlining emergency procedures, or those simply offering general employment information—all require good judgment in determining the focus and scope of the content.

What Users Want

“Users,” states Campbell, “are the ultimate pragmatists.” What this boils down to in a manual or handbook, she suggests, is easy access to information, physical convenience, and usability.

How to Give It to Them

A handbook or manual should be easy to use from both a physical and information standpoint. This can be achieved through the use of mechanical elements of design and production. Design elements involve presenting logically organized content, along with a quick and easy reference system. Production elements center around ensuring that the document is an appropriate size and shape, sufficiently durable, and capable of accommodating revisions.

The Design Elements

Campbell presents seven design elements for handbooks and manuals, collectively referred to as front matter and back matter. This includes the table of contents, list of illustrations, list of forms, introduction, glossary, appendix, and index. These elements serve to speed users to the policy or procedure that they are looking for.

Table of Contents

This design element describes what is in a book, how items are grouped, and where to find them. This is best written last, since a complete overview of the content can’t known until after it has been written. The writing process may also demand changes to the flow of topics or subject groupings. The Table of Contents merits special care, as it is often the first impression that a user gets of the document.

List of Illustrations

When a List of Illustrations is included, it’s often placed directly after the Table of Contents. You can include all of the illustrations in one list, or break each type of illustration into a separate list.

List of Forms

When a handbook or manual contains numerous forms, it is helpful to catalog them in a specific list. Most readers dislike forms, and a List of Forms helps eliminate the excuse that the form could not be found.

Introduction

The introduction is an important piece of text that orients the reader to the purpose and scope of the manual. These are almost always helpful to include, but for best results they should be kept brief.

Glossary

The glossary defines special words, acronyms, abbreviations, terminology, or jargon. The definitions are usually brief, and sometimes use examples for clarity.

Appendix

Appendices are useful for ridding the text of “material that isn’t essential to understanding or compliance and distracts readers from the main point.” Placement requires careful consideration to ensure that the material in the appendices isn’t forgotten or ignored.

Index

Campbell describes indexes as “probably the most valuable ‘speed tool’ you can give your reader…there is no faster method of looking up a reference.” In addition to the standard subject or key word indexes, one can also make use of specialized indexes, categorical indexes, and multi-manual indexes. It is design these these indexes from the perspective of the reader, using terminology that they would use. Rely on your discipline and good judgment.

The Production Elements

There are six production elements to consider when producing a handbook or manual. These include, size, paper, color, binders, cover, and dividers. In deciding on these materials, consider how the manual will be used. Three main items to consider are:

1. How readers will use the manual.
2. Under what conditions they’ll use it.
3. How frequently they’ll use it.

Manuals that will be subjected to heavy daily use or harsh conditions will require more durable construction.

Size

There are many convention standards that can be followed, but sometimes unconventional formats, such as laminated cards on a string, could be appropriate. Just be sure to consider all of the ramifications of using unconventional sizes.

Paper

If heavy use is expected, it pays to use sturdier paper. This is especially true if the document will be used in harsh conditions, such as a production or maintenance area where various liquids and chemicals are prevalent.

Color

Campbell identifies three color issues: (1) page color, (2) section color, and (3) binder color. In terms of paper, white is generally the easiest on the eye, but colored paper can be used to highlight a specific section and aid in navigation. Using a binder that is an uncommon color can help it to stand out on a shelf.

Binders

Sturdiness can be an important factor with binders. It is also important not to try to fit too much into a single binder or it can become unwieldy. In such situations, it is often better to separate a thick manual into two smaller binders. A three-ring binder allows for revisions at a later date.

Cover

One popular option involves using a binder with a clear plastic envelope on the front, into which a cover page can be inserted. It is also very important the binder be somehow labeled on the binding, so that the title is visible when the binder is sitting on a shelf.

Dividers

If dividers are used, make sure that they are sturdy enough and securely affixed to the pages so that they are not broken off and lost.

Distribution Issues

One should approach the issue of distributing these handbooks and manuals just as carefully as the rest of the project. Begin by developing a distribution list and checking it with several others. Overlooking certain individuals or departments can cause frustration and resentment. In creating the distribution list, those who will implement and/or enforce the policies and procedures your handbook or manual contains should always receive a copy, well those individuals who only have a general interest in the information may not need to receive copies. A distribution list can also be used to track who has acknowledged receipt of the documents, or ownership of the documents themselves.

Campbell concludes with a brief chapter summary, followed by a Tools and Resources section, in which the material from the chapter is presented in a highly practical way.

The Shape of Text to Come

In his article “The Shape of Text to Come,” Stephen Bernhardt speculates some of the dimensions of change in how text is structured on a page and on the screen. He discusses how good theoretical understanding and a highly developed practical art of the rhetoric and text structure of paper documents exerts a strong shaping influence over texts produced via electronic media (410). He uses a text analytical approach to identify nine dimensions of variation that help map the differences between paper and on-screen text. These nine dimensions include: Situationally Embedded, Interactive, Functionally Mapped, Navigable, Hierarchically Embedded, Spacious, Graphically Rich, and Customizable and Publishable.

Situationally Embedded Text
Bernhardt begins this section by discussing some of the situational differences between paper and screen-based text. Reading from a screen tends to cause fatigue so extended reading will continue to rely on print, while other functional types of reading will rely on screen-based text (411). He notes that paper texts can be read anywhere, but screen-based texts are more deeply embedded in the context of the situation. Screen-based reading is often associated with task-oriented reading because it integrated with some sort of action. “Readers of screen-based texts are not so much readers as doers or seekers: they read to find out how to do something or to retrieve some bit of information (411). Bernhardt notes that the shape of screen-based text is heavily influenced by the development of help systems. He also notes that having text situationally integrated also applies to other forms of screen-based reading. Students use computers to help with writing and these computers help structure interaction. The text is embedded within systems—its texture is shaped by both the machine and the instrumental purposes and social interaction to which the text is put (412). Bernhardt concludes this section by noting that books are self-contained, while screen-based texts are dependent on a larger technological and social environment, to be used under delimited circumstances (412).

Interactive Text
Bernhardt writes that the reader’s role in a text as being active. Readers construct a text in their own image, and this is typically seen as a private matter. He notes that reading of electronic text should be viewed in similar terms. “Readers of on-screen text interact physically with the text. Through the mouse, the cursor, the touch screen, or voice activation, the text becomes a dynamic object, capable of being physically manipulated and transformed” (412). Bernhardt uses an example from the Perseus Project, which helps students visualize a staged production of a Greek play. In the Perseus model, students are able to interact and manipulate the entire set of the stage and play. The designers take active, constructive reading into the arena of physical manipulation and sensory visualization (412). Screen readers are actively engaged with the screen as they enter text and this interaction is forced, unlike a print-text. Bernhardt notes that he is not suggesting screen reading is better, but he does write that the developing genre of the electronic novel should not be underestimated.

Functionally Mapped Text
“Text, whether on page or on screen, performs a function of some sort: informing, directing, questioning, or posing situations contrary to fact” (414). This functional variation is often expressed through grammatical systems of mood, and readers can often make some rhetorical determination as to what a chunk of text is doing. In many printed texts, the functional variation is mapped semantically. Shifts are noted by phrases such as “for example,” or “to consider my next point” (414). Screen-based and print text also use visual cues of layout and typography to signal functional shifts. Bernhardt notes that when language is on screen, readers must be able to distinguish the following different functions: cue interaction with the system, cue navigation, offer system messages, informative/ideational (414). The interaction between the text and action is important for efficient reading, and they must be highly planned and have carefully constructed formatting decisions. Bernhardt goes on to write that not all areas of the screen are equal, and functional mapping tends to be the richest on the borders. “On screens, the language is the richest, there is the most going on, there is the greatest range or things to do around the edges, on the perimeters. It is on the edge that we recognize where we are, what we can do, where we can go, or how we can get out” (415). The functional mapping of options is becoming more consistent in programs. Simple, yet efficient cues are being used to help guide the reader. The traditional cues of paper texts are often shadowed by the ever-expanding visual cues used in electronic texts.

Modular Text
Most texts reflect some modularity of structure: a text is composed of other texts, such as a book with chapters (416). The movement of text from paper to screen encourages further modularization of text structure. With screen texts, each module of information must stand on its own because of problems with local cohesion. A writer must assume that a user can arrive at any given screen from practically anywhere. Bernhardt mentions that even though it is possible to scroll within a window, this action is time-consuming and wasteful. Also, when text is not composed of screen-size bites, readers tend to lose their places and become disoriented (416). However, modular text does have some advantages. One text base can serve multiple audiences and multiple purposes for reading (417). Novice and expert tracks can be structured out of the same set of information, and texts of various sorts can be compiled instead of written. This is especially useful for screen-based text such as online help because a single text can be written once but used many times.

Hierarchical, Layered, Embedded Text
Print text is a flat medium intended for linear reading. It can achieve a special sort of modularization through semantic cues but it doesn’t compare to computers, which are suited to nonlinear text. Hypertext programs allow texts of various sorts to be combined into large text bases, allowing readers to move freely across various sorts of information in nonlinear ways (419). Even though screens are two-dimensional, they offer the illusion of depth. Information can be present without being visible, and the desktop can be stacked with open files—multiple applications running simultaneously—each with its own text in its own screen. (419). While paper text must embed signals of hierarchy within the linear text, screen-based text can actually be hierarchically structured. “With the combination of both hierarchical subordination and lateral links from any point to any point, hypertext offers greatly expanded possibilities for new structures characterized by layering and flexibility” (419).

Navigable Text
Readers of all texts must navigate to find information. With paper-text, readers often use signposts, such as table of contents, indexes, headings and pagination. Most readers have a set of strategies used to find information in print texts. They are often frustrated when they try finding information using electronic text because these print text search strategies don’t work. Because the screen lacks the total physical presence of printed text, screen readers often have difficulty sizing up the whole (420). The challenge of designing text on screens rests in large part on overcoming the machine’s tendency toward a homogeneous surface. Many initial attempts were borrowed from paper text, but some navigation aids work best only within electronic media. Graphical browsers can offer readers a visualization of the structure of information, so that one can see at a glance the scope and nature of large collections of information (420). Also, ties, or links, or buttons work much better in screen-based text than in paper texts. Standard navigation devices are quickly emerging so that screen readers can bring learned strategies to new interfaces and new texts.

Spacious Text
Print text is constrained by physical space. The same physicality that makes books easy to use makes them impossible to use as systems grow larger (421). There is no similar physical constraint associated with electronic text. There is both spaciousness in the amount of information that can be recorded and the design of information display. Writers of paper text are always contained by length, but since space is virtually unlimited in screen texts, there is no need to run unrelated information together to save space. “The effect on prose is liberating, freeing it from the economic constraints of inscription” (422).

Graphically Rich Text
“Electronic text extends visual composition by offering a surface with more graphic potential and greatly augmented options for text/graphic display and integration” (422). Some display options are shared by paper and electronic texts, including: white space, space breaks, margins, bullets, font sizes and varieties, headings, color, and boldface and italics. However, go beyond print’s visual effects. Readers can zoom in and out, text can flash, sequences can be animated, and video, voice or musical sequences can be part of text. It is known that people learn about complicated systems best when they have organized metaphors, and electronic information allows for the exploitation of these metaphors (422). Bernhardt notes that the phosphor glow of screen text often causes fatigue and eye strain, but that that same phosphor also offers a fluid, dynamic medium, with many more options than print has for displaying information and exploiting visual intelligence (423).

Customizable, Publishable Text
The final dimension Bernhardt discusses is customizable and publishable text. Readers can’t do much to personal print text, but electronic text benefits from being more fluid, expansive and adaptable to individual users (423). Lines and notes can be added to electronic text and the user can choose to reject or accept them and print or suppress them. The display of the text itself can be customized. Readers can suppress the display of rulers, spaces, returns, etc (425). The “same” text can display itself based on the individual user’s preferences using user histories. The control over the shape of text leads inevitably toward not just customizable but publishable text. Desktop publishing technology puts the printing press into user’s hands. Historically, much of the cost of printing has been in the production stage, but with desktop publishing technology the cost is shifted the author and the audience. Print is no longer permanent because the cost and effort of updating editions is negligible (426).

The Shape of Text to Come
Bernhardt concludes by noting that as text changes, we will develop new strategies for reading and writing. He writes that we are at a point of transition, and that “the presence of screens will become increasingly common, a part of our daily lives, close at hand in a variety of situations” (426).

Relocating the Value of Work
Technical Communication in a Post-Industrial Age

Johndan Johnson-Ellias


Ellias starts off the article discussing what the primary use for technical communicators was fifty years ago. He states that after the wave of industrial technology, which includes products such as; washers, automobiles, and televisions. That information also became a valuable product. His problem with technical communication is that after the wave of industrial technology, information was second to the product. Making technical communicators subordinate. Ellias stresses the need for technical communicators to over come the subordinate role of supplying information and how to steps to industrial products and software. He wants technical communicators to apply contextualized information, helping the user understand the task at hand and the reasoning for the task.
He also states that there are three services of work and technical communicators need to be in the last category of symbolic-analytical work but they have to transition themselves there. He states the three categories being: routine production, which involves repetitive work. According to Ellias technical communication falls into this category because of routine manual writing, which produces technical procedures and follows a predetermined template. The second category is in-person service work; this includes your customer service representatives. Technical communication also falls into this category because people no longer read their instructions; they call the help line instead. Technical communicators help to set up the help line by creating stock answers to typically asked questions. The third category is symbolic-analytic work; this is the category Ellias states that technical communication fall into. Symbolic-analytic work possesses the ability to identify, rearrange, circulate, abstract, and broker information (page 182). This refers back to his idea of contextualizing the information. Ellias wants to relocate the need for technical communication, he wants the technical communicator to understand why the task is being done and for exactly what audience. He stresses the importance of not just relaying information on how to accomplish the task. He wants technical communicators to understand the task and teach the task emphasizing communication instead of technology.
Later in the article Ellias breaks the idea of communication focus instead of technology focus into four categories; experimentation, collaboration, abstraction, and system thinking. He says that that technical communicators should experiment and implement usability to discover what works well and what doesn’t. Collaboration includes working together that in technical communication it will almost always be a team project including, designers, developers, marketers and writers. When he talks about abstraction he talks about thinking about the original project and rethinking to make it more efficient. System thinking refers to thinking beyond system problems and solutions, but thinking more about how the problem occurred. He stresses those four ideas, because he feels if they are implemented in a learning environment technical communication may be able to strive to be symbolic-analytic work.